Through the prism of the indisputable influence of World actors on the Albanian state, the authors of the article identified and outlined various Albanian economic models in different historical periods. An in-depth analysis of these models made it possible to determine and formulate the main factors of the Albanian historical development, as well as to substantiate the logic of Albania’s return to Europe and European integration.

In order to form a holistic view of the models of the state development of Albania in the selected period of recent history, the authors paid attention to the main historical events. Briefly reviewed stages of the state’s historical development; 

• the postwar influence of the Soviet factor, formed under the pressure of the Stalinist satrapy; 
•  manifestations of the unsuccessful introduction of German idears and concepts on the Albanian territory; 
• peculiar influence of the Turkish factor, which left an indelible mark in the ethnic network of the Albanian society; 
• the Italian economic presence, which managed to form the pro-European factor of the Albanian political and economic model; 
• the American factor and, finally,
• the Ukrainian direction of Albanian foreign policy.

Against the background of the deep world cataclysms of the 21st century, the current situation in the Albanian state seems balanced and stable. At the same time, we note that this  representation is without exaggeration deceptive, since the country has accumulated a number of unresolved problems, the timely non-regulation of which threatens both the security of the state and its political and economic development.

Albania strongly condemned Russia’s unprovoked and aggressive attack on Ukraine as a serious violation of international law and a threat to Euro-Atlantic security. 

Albania is also part of NATO’s protective shield and is ready to do everything possible to ensure the security and protection of all member states.

It should be recognized that behind the scenes of excessive competitive interests of the leading global forces, the appearance of Albania among the countries – full members of the North Atlantic Alliance was an unexpected phenomenon. An unexpected fact for the majority of states was also the acquisition of membership of this country in a number of leading international structures, which was the result of the gradual, unadvertised work of the leadership and directly of the political department of the state to image and advertise its capabilities and advantages to other subjects of international relations. As a result, Albania attracted the attention of an overwhelming number of international organizations, which not every country can be proud of. At the same time, it realized political and economic interests both in the Global South, in Southeast Asia, and in the unstable European East. 

The purpose of the author of the article is to study the determining factors – Turkish, Italian, Yugoslav, German, Soviet and American – in the history of Albania. Some models took root on Albanian soil, others were categorically rejected, despite harsh coercion, terror, intimidation and the destruction of resistance. The author managed to trace the peculiar choice of the Albanians, explain and argue: why some implemented development options were approved and positively accepted by society, while others caused constant resistance, which led to the complete elimination of the imposed schemes.

Historical essay. Albanian historiography defines the resistance to the Turkish invaders and the anti-Ottoman uprisings of the first half of the 19th century as the beginning of the Albanian National Renaissance. This all-encompassing social movement led to the victory over the invaders and the declaration of independence of Albania in November 1912. The center of consolidation of the Albanian nation and national statehood was in Kosovo, but at the beginning of the 20th century moved to the southern regions of the state. At the end of World War I, the entire territory of Albania was divided between Italy, France, and Greece. Albania was saved from final liquidation by the United States: American President Woodrow Wilson spoke out against the dismemberment of Albania (Albania: First Review Under the Extended Arrangement and Request for Modification of  Performance Sriteria— Staff Report; and Press Release. June 13, 2014. https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/scr/2014/cr14211.pdf).

The German factor in the history of Albania in the 20th century. With the beginning of World War II in April 1939, fascist Italy occupied Albania: 50 thousand army against 8 thousand Albanian soldiers. The Third Reich occupied the country on September 9. In October, the Constituent Assembly was convened at the request of the Germans, and Albania declared its independence, and also repealed most of the laws adopted during the Italian occupation. 

The Albanian government was in no hurry to cooperate with the Germans and in 1944 refused to submit lists of Jews living in Albania. 

The war against the invaders turned into a civil war. In November 1944, under pressure from the People’s Liberation Army of Yugoslavia and the Red Army, the Germans evacuated troops from Albania.

Soviet and Yugoslav influences on the formation of Albania. In 1944, the People’s Liberation Army of Albania gradually liberated Albanian territory and liberated the capital Tirana. The Democratic Front won the elections to the Constituent Assembly in 1945, and in 1946, the Kingdom was proclaimed a people’s republic with a new constitution. Yugoslavia was the first to recognize the communist government of Albania, followed by the USSR. However, Great Britain and the USA refused to recognize communist Albania, citing the absence of opposition representatives in the government; they withdrew their missions from Tirana, opposed the country’s accession to the UN, etc.

Analyzing the events of that period, we draw attention to a rather interesting phenomenon, namely: in the Albanian space we observe a clash of Soviet and Yugoslav socio-economic models of development. The superimposition of similar ideological pro-socialist development platforms on each other in the Albanian dimension did not achieve the desired result. 

With the collapse of the USSR and changes in the socio-political landscape, the Yugoslav version of socialism lost its relevance.

The distinctive features of the Albanian model of socialism were: orthodox Stalinism in economics, nationalist ideology and totalitarian regime in politics.

In such a situation, the Albanian leadership, without irritating either the Stalinist satraps or the Titoist leaders, found a middle ground for its own Albanian path, and at the same time used the help of the Soviet and Yugoslav mini-camps in the great socialist camp. The situation that developed because of the ideological and diplomatic gap between Albania and the USSR, caused by the debunking of Stalinism, prompted the Albanian leadership to turn its attention to China. The IV Congress of the Albanian People’s Party (1961) outlined, following the Chinese model, a program of ideological and cultural revolution aimed at destroying national traditions that “impeded the construction of a modern national state in Albania on the basis of Marxism-Leninism.” In 1967, Albania was officially declared an atheist country, and churches were closed. The reforms of “socialist realism” caused discontent in the highest circles of power, among workers and students. 

The authorities returned to the restoration of a strict regime. The new Constitution (1976) named the country the People’s Socialist Republic of Albania, proclaimed the leading role of the party in all spheres of public life, and Marxism-Leninism as the official ideology of the state, abolished private property, and outlawed religious practice. Geography and history had an undeniable influence on Albania’s foreign relations. Albania was a country unknown to the West for almost fifty years. After the break with Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union, as well as with China (1978), Albania remained completely isolated.

In March 1991, Albania restored diplomatic relations with the United States. A number of treaties of friendship and cooperation were signed with Italy, Greece, Turkey, France, and other countries. Albania’s modern foreign policy is characterized by political realism and flexibility in resolving the Kosovo issue; striking a balance between European and American orientations; participating in regional initiatives; improving relations with neighbors, including Serbia; maintaining a balance between two Western European neighbors – Italy and Greece – on the one hand, and Greece and Turkey on the other; gradually withdrawing from the Islamic Conference and joining the Conference of Francophone Countries. 

By following this strategy, Albania seeks to leave behind a history of diplomatic hesitation. Kosovo is undoubtedly the axis around which Albanian foreign policy revolves. Tirana’s position on the unresolved Kosovo issue largely depends on leading world actors. In 1991, the Albanian parliament recognized the independence of the Republic of Kosovo in a special declaration, and a few months later Kosovo opened its representative office in Tirana. However, the Albanian government has not issued an official declaration of recognition. Tirana’s position on the Kosovo issue has been rather ambiguous. This can be explained both by the general disorientation in Albanian politics and by the so-called “Gandhism” of the president. To the above should be added the motley Western policy, the recommendations of which Tirana tried to follow. It became clear to everyone that Albania, weakened and half-destroyed, would not be able to survive without the help of leading Western actors.

Modern Germany is the country that Albanians trust most regarding the future of Kosovo and consider it an ally. Germany is also the country with which Albania has established the closest relations. Kosovo and emigrants are two issues around which German policy towards Albania revolves. About 400 thousand Albanians, mainly from Kosovo, currently live in Germany. Most of them are seeking political asylum and refuse to return home, which is very worrying for the German authorities.

The Turkish factor. A difficult history that has grown into reliable cooperation – this is how we can characterize the interaction of Albania with the Republic of Turkey. In mid-1992, Albania concluded a military assistance agreement with Turkey and joined the Organization of the International Islamic Conference. In the broader Balkan context, Turkey has always considered the Albanians as its natural allies in the Balkans. Turkey maintains close military ties with Tirana and plays an important role in the reorganization of the Albanian army. 

The most important military base of Albania, which was destroyed during the armed confrontations, was rebuilt by Turkey. The countries demonstrate institutional cooperation in all areas and at all levels. Active cooperation and mutual understanding are facilitated by the diasporas of both states. A large community of Albanians lives and works in Turkey. Economic cooperation deserves special attention. The positive and widespread trend of Turkish investments in the Albanian economy continues in key areas: energy, telecommunications, the banking sector, etc. At the end of 2023, the trade volume reached 850 million euros. Turkish investments amount to about 3.7 billion euros, and Turkish companies present in the country employ more than 15 thousand Albanians.

US positions in Albania. In 1994, Tirana offered Washington the Gjader military airport for reconnaissance missions of reconnaissance aircraft in the skies of the former Yugoslavia. This gave Albania the title of “US satellite” in the Balkans. For a long time, military issues were the most important aspect of relations between the small Balkan country and the most powerful state in the world. Although America’s contribution to the development of the Albanian economy was modest, the American “umbrella” became a reliable protection for Albanians. The United States actively supported the development of Albania’s road transport system: with an initial grant of $ 10.3 million. for the Eighth Corridor between East and West. 

In 2017, the presidents of Albania, Macedonia, Bulgaria and Turkey signed an agreement in New York, under which a highway will connect Durres, Skopje, Sofia and Istanbul – that is, the Adriatic with the Black Sea. With the support of the US, the three countries also plan to build gas and oil pipelines.

Italian aid to Albania. The first agreements between the countries provided for Italy’s assistance in the revival of the Albanian state: army, police, customs system, etc. Italy is also actively involved in educational projects in Albania. The issue of emigrants remains a difficult topic between Italy and Albania. The countries signed a Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation (Memorandum) in 1995, a Declaration on Strategic Partnership, which has been in force since February 12, 2010, and other documents. The development of bilateral relations is facilitated by the presence of Albanian and Arbere communities in Italy and Italian communities in Albania, which create a social background of tolerance and harmony between peoples.

The Albania-Italy Permanent Joint Committee on Economic and Social Affairs was established, which focuses on investment opportunities in sectors such as energy, infrastructure, agriculture and especially tourism. Currently, there is intensive cooperation in the transport sector: within the framework of the TAP project, as well as on Corridor 8, which is of strategic importance not only for the countries concerned, but also for the EU’s energy security.

Economy of Albania. Albania is an agro-industrial country that is transforming its own economy from a planned state to a free market one. A sharp transition from the constrained economy of socialism to a market development scheme and a free market (1997) led to a deep crisis. As a result, Albania remained the most backward country in Europe, and its population one of the poorest. A complex tax system, licensing requirements, a weak judiciary, corruption, non-compliance with contract terms, and outdated infrastructure are the main obstacles to business development and attracting foreign investment. 

The International Monetary Fund programs in the country are under constant threat due to the inability of the national government to reduce the state budget deficit: the country’s significant external debt hinders. In 2013, this figure was 8.209 billion, and in 2016 it reached 71% of annual GDP (44th place in the world). 25% of the country’s population lives below the poverty line, and 30% of the population is unemployed. Imports of goods and services are 62.3%. During the socialist self-isolation, the USSR and China were the main external partners Albania. In 2024: Italy — 42.8%, Kosovo — 9.7%, the USA — 7.6%, China — 6.1%, Greece — 5.3%, Spain — 4.8%.

The country is a member of more than 50 international organizations and is a party to numerous environmental agreements (although not all of them have been ratified) on air pollution, biodiversity, climate change, desertification, protection of endangered species; combating hazardous waste, maritime law, protection of the ozone layer, etc. Undoubtedly, Kosovo is the axis around which Albanian foreign policy revolves. 

Albania was the first Eastern European country to formally apply for NATO membership in 1992, and joined the Partnership for Peace (PfP) in January 1994. Since then, the country has received significant assistance in restructuring its army. In March 1996, the United States opened a training base in the Martanesh Mountains as part of a military assistance package worth a total of $100 million. In addition, the first 40-strong Albanian peacekeeping contingent participated in the German contingent of IFOR, based in the Croatian port of Trogir. Greece and Italy supported Albania’s candidacy in the first round of NATO enlargement.

At the 23-24 of April 1999 after the Washington Summit Albania and another 7 countries (later also Croatia), was admitted to the list of candidate countries for membership in the Alliance. In November 1999, Albania first submitted its Membership Action Plan (MAP). In August 2002, Albania sent its first mission to Afghanistan, the ISAF mission, 23 people from a commando regiment. In 2003, a mission to Iraq, a commando company. In May 2003, Albania, Croatia and Macedonia, together with the United States, signed the “Adriatic Charter 3 – USA”. Albania committed to achieving 43 partnership objectives for joint work with the Alliance forces. Albania became a full member of NATO on 1 April 2009. Given its location in the Balkans, Albania is considered a strategically important country for the United States and NATO. Albania has committed to achieving a defence spending target of 2% of GDP, underlining its commitment to the security of the Alliance. Albanian soldiers currently serve in NATO operations and missions in the Baltic States, Poland, Romania, Bulgaria, and Kosovo. 

Albania opened NATO’s first tactical air base in the Western Balkans (Kučova Airport) on 4 March 2024. The Albanian public – 89% of Albanians – are the strongest indicator of support for the country’s participation in NATO.

Albania is actively seeking membership in the European Union and has made significant progress in this regard. Albania became an official candidate for accession in June 2014, but formal negotiations began in July 2022. Albania aims to conclude negotiations on formal accession by 2027, with the aim of becoming a full member of the European integrated space by 2030. 

Albania strongly condemned Russia’s unprovoked and aggressive attack on Ukraine as a serious violation of international law and a threat to Euro-Atlantic security. 

The Agreement on Long-Term Cooperation and Support was signed in January 2025 by the President of Ukraine Volodymyr Zelensky and the Prime Minister of Albania Edi Rama. The agreement defines the main areas of cooperation: security support, political support, economic cooperation, cultural cooperation, and cooperation in the field of security. Albania also joined the Joint Declaration adopted by the G7 countries and the EU in support of Ukraine.

So, the various Albanian economic models in different historical periods made it possible to determine the main factors of Albanian development and to substantiate the logic of Albania’s choice of the European integration path of development and active activity in NATO. 

Ukraine-Albania interaction is a special issue in the recent history of bilateral relations, as this small and frankly poor country strongly condemned Russia’s unprovoked and aggressive attack on Ukraine as a serious violation of international law and a threat to Euro-Atlantic security.

Chekalenko Liudmyla, Kudriachenko Andriy.

The State Institution “The Institute of World History

 of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine’’